METHODOLOGICAL AND MOTIVATIONAL BASIS OF HISTORY TEXTBOOKS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN THE KINGDOM OF YUGOSLAVIA ( 1918-1941 )

This paper analyzes the textbooks and curricula of history classes for primary schools in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and in Serbia. The results indicate that their methodological and motivational basis relies on the functionalization of history in accordance with the political and ideological objectives of the Yugoslav state, primarily nationally-integrative and patriotic. The paper is based on archival research, published historical sources, periodicals and historiographical literature.

istory textbooks for primary schools in the Yugoslav state, and therefore in Serbia, were developing since the creation of the state, through a period of royal dictatorship until it disappeared in 1941.The process of the unification of the school system was accompanied by a process of the adaptation of history textbooks according to the proscribed model of a unified national textbook that was never actually brought to life.In the four-year primary school only national history was taught in history classes.In the higher grades of the national school general history was taught in addition to national history.It was almost exclusively political or event history, with very few elements of social history.History was largely personalized and was mediated by the actions of important historical figures, most often of rulers, with wars occupying a very important place.It should be borne in mind that wars revive feelings that unite individuals within the ethnic or national collectivity.A common threat strengthens the sense of solidarity and unity. 1 The question is whether and to what extent history textbooks could to fulfill these demands.This primarily depended on the relationship between the content of the textbook and the cognitive ability of children aged 9 to 11. Research studies conducted after World War II showed that at this age students had difficulties in understanding the notion of historical time and in orientating in it.At the same time, they had difficulties in understanding general historical terms unless they were linked to clear and close associations. 2n the period after 1929 history textbooks for primary schools got an even greater state-integrative role, they became a means of spreading desirable historical awareness and a means of a spiritual and cultural integration of the people who were gathered in the same state. 3In order for textbooks to achieve their primary purpose, a selection of content and a manner of its presentation largely relied on a few basic stereotypes which were based on the desirable image of the past. 4Such an image of the past was an argument for the justification of the present and the projected future.
In the early twenties5 the history textbooks for primary schools were in fact Serbian history textbooks (mainly of the state of Serbia) with short appendices on the history of Croats and Slovenes.At the same time6 the publishing of books began which presented the most important events, processes and figures in the history of all three "tribes" of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.The history of Slovenes and Croats was presented in parallel and successively with Serbian history, which still occupied the greatest number of units.In addition, a growing number of units were devoted to the common history.This can be seen in the quantification of the content of some of the textbooks representative of this period.Of the total content of one of them, 83.9% was dedicated to Serbian history, 12.7% to the events from the common history, 3.3% to Croatian history and less than half a percent (about half a page) to the history of Slovenes. 7he idea of the national unity of the three Yugoslav tribes was gradually embodied in the parallel presentation of their separate histories with an emphasis on the events and factors that connected them in history.Already at that time the name "Yugoslavs" was used for Serbs, Croats and Slovenes as a synonym and a common name.However, these nations were more frequently denoted by the phrase "all our people, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes".This emphasized the common origin as a basis of the national unity which was naturally expressed through the unification on 1 December 1918.What was particularly remarkable was the closeness of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes as members of one branch of Slavs, the South Slavs (with Bulgarians), and then as members of a nation, Yugoslavs.In some textbooks the headlines of teaching units were aligned with this concept ("The faith of old Yugoslavs", "The baptism of Yugoslavs"). 8The history of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was presented as Yugoslav and common history from the early Middle Ages.As evidence of the desire to create a common state, authors then used the example of Ljudevit Posavski who they claimed was the first one who attempted to create a Yugoslav state.The same thing happened with an increasing emphasis on the history of the medieval Bosnian state, especially during the reign of King Tvrtko I because he unified large parts of Serbian and Croatian lands under his rule.Certain significant events and personalities in the history of certain tribes were increasingly compared mutually; the Croatian defeat at the Krbava field was compared to the Serbian defeat at the Kosovo field. 9ne of the premises that the concept of the textbook was based upon was that from the earliest times there was a tendency for the unity of our entire nation with three names which was prevented by internal and external factors which divided the people and caused conflicts.One of the most important external factors in this division was the religious divide between Catholics and Orthodox because the two religious centers, Rome and Constantinople, had their political goals and divided the hitherto unique Christian nation.Therefore, one of the most commonly cited proverbs in the textbooks was My brother is dear to me, regardless of the faith. 10From the 1930's the textbooks added Islam or Islamization ("Turkization") of part of the Serbs and Croats, which was a consequence of the Turkish conquest, to the religious factor of division and conflict.The motives of discord, and even betrayal, were emphasized as important factors of internal division and conflict.Most often, leading members of social classes were accused of this because they were not governed by national but rather by their selfish interests.These motives were used to interpret some important, even crucial, historical events (the failure of Ljudevit Posavski, the disintegration of Dušan's empire), and they would serve as one of the explanations of why the history of Yugoslavs had such a course, i.e. why foreign enemies were able to conquer the Yugoslav lands.
The first external enemies were Germans; from the early Middle Ages Germans from the Frankish state, and later from Austria and Austria-Hungary, during World War I and Germany.In the 14 th century the German enemy was joined by another enemy, Turkey.Then, in the gradation of foreign enemies, Turkey won the highest place because of the consequences of its conquests as well as the length of its domination.It ended only in the First Balkan War in 1912.Among the external enemies there were also Byzantium, Hungary and Bulgaria, but relations with them had different phases, including friendship and cooperation, primarily with Bulgaria.In building the image of the external enemies historical facts were not always respected.According to one textbook, the murder of Prince Mihailo in 1868 was organized by the Austrian-Hungarian Empire and Turkey because he worked on the liberation of the Serbian people in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Old Serbia and Macedonia, as well as in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire.This view of events did not fit into the general concept of the greatest Serbian and Yugoslav enemies. 11The basic content of the history of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes after the collapse of their medieval state was their struggle against foreign invaders.However, based on the presentations in textbooks it could be implicitly concluded that the foreign domination had some positive effects.When it came to the Turkish rule, despite the great suffering and the overall decline that it caused, it encouraged the spirit of resistance, caused great migrations and the mixing of all three parts of "our people", who would fight together increasingly more against the same enemy.The migrations of the people and the fight were the basis of the creativity of common folk epics.They would portray the glory of the hero of epic poetry, the spirit of tradition and old glory, which would encourage resistance and create a basis for spiritual and political unification.Therefore, one of the almost mandatory art additions in the textbook was a figure of a folk singer, a gusle player with numerous crowds around him. 12he temporary curricula for primary schools in 1925 and 1926 singled out history as a separate subject called the History of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.It was supposed to be taught two hours a week in the third grade and three hours a week in the fourth grade.The same number of hours remained in new curriculum in 1927, which was also designated as temporary, but was in use until 1934.The curriculum from 1927 continued shaping the new concept of teaching and of history textbooks that would get their final form after 1934.According to the new school curriculum, the textbooks for the third grade had a proportionally larger space dedicated to the history of the Croats and Slovenes as well as the common history.The common historical destiny was also reaffirmed in the comparison of important events and personalities (the Kosovo battle with the battle on the field of Krbava, the figure of Nikola Zrinjski was similar to Miloš Obilić). 13A new chapter of common history was marked by the period starting with the First Serbian Uprising in 1804.A particularly significant period began with the arrival of King Petar I Karađorđević to the Serbian throne because then the process of liberation and unification of all Serbs, Croats and Slovenes entered the crucial phase.Historical figures were represented as personifying the most desirable personality traits.They were thus given an important educational function, both moral and national.A particularly important task in the national education was given to two ruling figures from the dynasty of Karađorđević: King Petar I and Crown Prince, later King Aleksandar I. 14 In the period after the declaration of royal dictatorship in 1929 and the proclamation of the policy of integral Yugoslavship it was obvious that it was intended for students in primary schools to internalize the state national policy.Historical content more than ever before pointed to the closeness, connection and cooperation of Yugoslavs since the earliest times.Since the beginning of the 1930's and especially since the new curriculum for primary schools from 1934, a new generation of history textbooks appeared which fully reflected a new national and educational policy.Then the history of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes became more even more prominently the history of Yugoslavs and the change was reflected on the level of terminology.The Yugoslav name largely replaced the national names and it marked the national history from the early Middle Ages. 15nification in the educational policy was manifested in adopting a number of laws, including the Law on textbooks and the Law on public schools.The Law on textbooks for public, civic, teacher training and secondary schools adopted on 27 September 1929 stipulates that only state published textbooks could be used.It turned out that this could not be implemented and in 1938 the concept of the state monopoly in textbook publishing was abandoned.The law on public schools was adopted on 5 December 1929.According to it, national schools became state institutions which had the task of "teaching and education in the spirit of the state and national unity and religious tolerance, to make students moral, loyal and active members of the government, national and social community; to expand education among people directly and indirectly through cooperation with cultural institutions for national education." 16This law put the greatest importance on the "national group of subjects", including the "national story (history) with the most notable events from general history".Instead of the former name of the school subject The History of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes history classes were now called The National Story (History).
History textbooks for primary schools received an increasingly important role in the implementation of a new national policy.This could be also seen in the predominance of lessons referring to the common history.In one textbook for the third grade of primary school in 1932, 17 out of 21 teaching units as many as 11 (52.4%)referred to the common history, primarily of Serbs and Croats, as well as of those dedicated to the idea of community and historical figures that implemented it.There were seven teaching units dedicated solely to Serbian history (33.3%), nine to Slovenian history (9.5%) and one to Croatian history (4.8%).In some other textbooks 18 this ratio was somewhat different, but what was characteristic for all of them was that the content from the common history prevailed.Events were still largely portrayed through the actions of important historical figures, while sometimes the wider social history was portrayed.One of the important methodological innovation in these textbooks was defining the most important concepts that were considered to be significant for understanding the content: the homeland, the people, Yugoslavs and our country.The nation was defined as a community of people with the same origin, the same or similar language, dialect and customs, and it was asserted that Yugoslavs had all these common characteristics.It was alleged that our nation was divided into three religions: Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim, but it was emphasized that the common origin was above these religious differences.These concepts were used in their contemporary meaning as a result of historical development, which particularly referred to religious divisions.For the first time the definition of history as a science was introduced, where it was equated with national history. 19rom the history textbooks for the third grade published since the beginning of the 1930's students gained basic knowledge from the history of the Yugoslav state, although it was generally presented as part of war and state activities of Regent and King Aleksandar I.They acquired the basic concepts regarding the administrative structure of the state, the change of its name in 1929, about the internal and foreign policy of King Aleksandar I, about the royal family.Some of these books were published in Latin script, in the 16 Zakon 1935: 7-8. 17Vujanac 1932. 18 In Ilić's textbook (1932), out of 24 units 11 (45.8%)Prica 1932: 5. "southern dialect". 20The unification of 1918 was still presented as a key event in the history of Yugoslavs, but also as a complex historical event that occurred in the circumstances of World War I.The last phase of the unification was presented as the work of all Yugoslav nations with the preconditions being created by the Serbian and allied military victories.
History textbooks in the fourth grade had a more elaborate content and more detailed chronology than textbooks for the third grade, but among them there were noticeable differences in the presentation of the history of Yugoslavia.In the presentation of what connected Yugoslavs in the course of history and comprised their (imaginary) common history, some authors made hypothetical and ahistorical statements. 21In the structure of the textbooks an even greater importance was given to the history of Yugoslavia and the continuity of the struggle for the liberation and unification since the early Middle Ages.Nearly half of the lessons were devoted to the common history of the Yugoslav people. 22n the introduction to the textbooks for fourth grade some basic and commonly known historical concepts were defined, which were supposed to become understandable and close so pupils could make a value judgment and even an emotional relationship.Among them were the concepts of tribe, nation, state and ruler.The state was compared to the house, the people to the family, the ruler to the head of the house. 23he influence of cultural factors, national enlightenment and rebirth, as well as their most important representatives (Dositej Obradović, Vuk Karadžić, Ljudevit Gaj, Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Janez Blajvajs, Valentin Vodnik) on the unification process was even more highlighted.The impact of the most significant events and personalities in general history was not forgotten either.It turned out that the current political developments, including foreign policy, influenced the content of certain textbooks, where, from the Yugoslav point of view, the role of Bulgaria was especially important.Some textbooks did not even mention the Second Balkan War, while Bulgaria entering the war on the side of the Central Powers in the autumn of 1915 was depicted as an act contrary to the will of the Bulgarian people.
At the beginning of the 1930's the first textbooks appeared that reflected the relationships in the new state, but as always the decisive role of the ruler and the Karađorđević dynasty was emphasized.Despite the idealization of the past and claims that the new state was the result of aspirations and actions of all Yugoslavs, it could be concluded that there were serious difficulties in the way they functioned.In some textbooks it was clearly emphasized that the new state suffered from an old ailment, discord among its leading men.The motive of discord among the national leaders was widespread and familiar to students because it is one of the central motifs of folk poetry which they encountered not only in history and mother tongue classes, but also in their family and a wider social setting.The main reason for the introduction of the royal 20 Rakočević, Lazarević 1933. 21Vujanac 1931: 8. 22 Rakočević, Lazarević 1933.Out of 28 units in this textbook 13 (46.4%)were dedicated to the common history, 10 (35.7%) to Serbian history, 3 (10.7%) to Croatian history, and one unit (3.6%) for both Bosnian and Montenegrin history respectively. 23Ibid.6. dictatorship in 1929 was claimed to be the discord among the national leaders because it endangered the people and the state which was created with so much trouble.The presentation of the most significant events in the history of Yugoslavia included a new national organization, the adoption of the constitution in 1931 and the return to the parliamentary regime. 24he new curriculum for primary schools of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was adopted on 17 July 1933 and was applied from the next academic year 1934/1935. 25The main objective of history classes was defined in the spirit of the Yugoslav national ideology: "Introducing students to the past of the Yugoslav peoples and education in the national spirit."According to the new curriculum history classes were organized somewhat differently than before because they considered not only ideological and political reasons, but also didactic and methodological observations of experts.Instead of two classes per week, history was taught once a week in the third grade, whereas in the fourth grade it was taught three hours per week like before. 26he concept of the curriculum and textbooks for the third grade was entirely based on the biographical method.History was taught after the biographies of nine most important figures in the history "of the Yugoslav people": Cyril and Methodius, St. Sava, Prince Marko, Prince Lazar, Nikola Šubić Zrinjski, Karađorđe, Štrosmajer, King Petar the Great and King Aleksandar Karađorđević.After the assassination of King Aleksandar in 1934, a short biography of his successor, Petar II, was added.It presented the royal governors, with a particular emphasis on the role of the first governor Prince Pavle.It is notable that among the selected personalities there was not one from the history of Slovenes.Within these biographies the more important events of national history were presented.However, the biggest part of the presentation was devoted to the work of certain personalities for the national good, especially to the creation of preconditions for the national unity of all parts of the Yugoslav people.This primarily referred to the biographies of Karađorđe and Štrosmajer and particularly of King Petar I and King Aleksandar I, to whom more than half of the content of textbooks was dedicated.Historical knowledge that should be adopted was in the form of selected pictures (history islands) which were mostly not interconnected.It was characteristic that the first two figures in a row, the brothers Cyril and Methodius from Thessaloniki, were important for the wider Slavic history, which was in line with emphasizing the common origin of Yugoslavs with other Slavic peoples.Other personalities bore significance for the history of certain parts of the Yugoslav people and for the whole nation. 27n order to adapt the textbook content more to the age of students, the authors used artistic poetry, folk sayings, quotations from historical works, and various illustrations.The statements were often in the form of a dialog, the descriptions were picturesque, metaphorical and with a dramatic charge. 28The history of Yugoslavia was clearly linked to the biographies of the last three personalities: Štrosmajer and, above all, Kings Petar and Aleksandar.While the Bishop of Đakovo was represented as one of the most important architects of the spiritual unity of Yugoslavs, Kings Petar and Aleksandar were those who brought this unity to life.There was an obvious disproportion in the scope and structure of some biographies.While in some textbooks biographies were structured in such a way as to make a more or less connected history of Yugoslavs, in others they are reduced to the lists of basic facts. 29What all the biographies had in common was an emphasis on human and moral qualities and, above all, work for the national good.The motif of the victim, both collective and individual, for the community (the people) was highlighted in all the biographies, especially in those where life itself was sacrificed for the people.Examples of such sacrifices were not only found in the older history (Prince Lazar, Nikola Šubić Zrinjski), but also in the latest history.The last and greatest sacrifice was embodied in King Aleksandar I, who was killed in 1934 in Marseilles.The biographies of Petar I and particularly of King Aleksandar were at the same time the framework for the presentation of the most important periods in the history of Yugoslavs, their liberation and unification in 1918, and a life in the new country.
In the textbooks the biography of King Aleksandar I was singled out in its scope and importance.He personified everything that was the most valuable in the entire history of the Yugoslavs, especially the common state.He personified all the desirable traits of man and ruler, he could be identified as the idealized type of a Yugoslav man without any negative characteristics.The rule of King Aleksandar was identified with the realization of the highest goal of Yugoslavs, i.e. with the creation of the common state which they strived for throughout their history.As a ruler, Aleksandar was responsible for the reconstruction of the war-torn country, he helped the poor in particular, he built endowments and monuments from his personal funds, he helped the educational system, he built homes for students, he even gave his house to a museum where young people were able to learn about folk history. 30A special emphasis was put on his closeness with peasants and on the implementation of the agrarian reform. 31Some textbooks from 1939 especially emphasized that he visited Croatian peasants to hear their wishes and needs. 32he army was his special concern and some authors were very uncritical in the presentation of its strength. 33The king's death was presented as a sacrifice both for his people and for world peace.The textbooks almost mandatorily cited the last words allegedly uttered by the King: Take care of Yugoslavia, whereby it was emphasized that the killers were not only the enemies of the Yugoslav state, but also of world peace.The King's death was used as a powerful motive for identifying with the state and for strengthening the common historical awareness.
According to the curriculum, which was implemented since 1934, history classes in the fourth grade were held three times a week in the total of 41 teaching units.In comparison with the previous curriculum, the new one was more comprehensive in 29 Marović б.г.75; Karadžić 1939: 31. 30Stojaković 1939: 60. 31 Josimović, Malezanović 1939: 58. 32 Kostić, Ljujić 1939: 48. 33  Đorđević, Stranjaković 1936: 77.content and the textbooks written after it were much more extensive. 34Some important events and historical figures were given more space and even new teaching units, while others found their way to the textbooks for the first time.One such example was the teaching unit about Muhammad and how Islam was spread in our country.A separate and final unit singled out a Brief overview of the establishment of the new state from 1804 to 1918, which emphasized even more the importance of this period, as well as the history of Yugoslavia.It was suggested that this was a unique time and a completed historical process in which the sequence of events led to one single goal, the state and national unification, so this period was covered in over a third of the total content of textbooks. 35f the 41 teaching units, 16 (39%) were dedicated to the common history, 14 (34.1%) to Serbian history, 6 (14.6%) to Croatian history, 1 (2.5%) to Slovenian history and 2 (4.9% ) modules to the history of Bosnia and Montenegro respectively.Different authors mostly complied with the curriculum, so the proportion of teaching units in their textbooks was similar to the above ratio.The content of one of the textbooks was as follows: out of the 40 teaching units 16 (40%) were devoted to the common history, 13 (32.5%) to Serbian history, 7 (17.5%) to Croatian history, 1 (2.5%) to Slovenian history, 2 (5%) to the history of Bosnia and 1 (2.5%) to the history of Montenegro. 36istory textbooks for the fourth grade of primary school published since 1935 testify about the final form of a certain textbook concept.It was a new generation of textbooks in which national history was presented in a more comprehensive and consistent way and was founded entirely the idea of national unity.National history since the early Middle Ages was presented thematically and in a synchronized way according to the already existing model.The content was presented in three large, more or less clearly formulated wholes.The period of immigration to the Balkan Peninsula and the creation of medieval states ended with the fall under foreign rule, when the period of struggle for liberation also began.The third segment clearly started with the period of the First Serbian Uprising and the national revival, which created the political and spiritual conditions for the final liberation.In this context, the importance of the period since the arrival of Petar I to the Serbian throne was emphasized, which ended with Yugoslav history.
One of the key factors of separation in the past was still the religious factor, with Islam now also playing a role in dividing religious groups.While emphasizing that the foreign domination was realized because they used religious differences, it was stressed that the unity was achieved only when the attitude prevailed that religion must not divide the people of the same origin and that members of all three religions should live in harmony. 37Political history was increasingly complemented by social history.The dimension of the creation of cultural unity as one of the two basic preconditions of unification was presented through biographies of the most important personalities (Vuk Karadžić, Ljudevit Gaj, Josip Juraj Štrosmajer, Janez Blajvajz, Valentin Vodnik).Matović 1938: 159;Prica 1940: 155. 35 Đorđević, Stranjaković 1939;Matović б.г. 36 Rabrenović 1935. 37 Rabrenović 1935: 17-18;Matović 1938: 5-6.There were only hints of conflict for which foreign factors were blamed and it was claimed they were guided by the principle Divide and conquer.The crucial role of Serbia in the process of liberation and unification after the arrival of Petar I to the Serbian throne was not questioned, but it was presented mostly implicitly.Particular importance was given to the democracy of Serbia and the overall progress and military strengthening along with the victory in the Balkan Wars and World War I.The monarchical principle of the rule and the democratic organization of the state were represented in a harmonious mutual relation until the unification, but not in the new country.It was emphasized that this harmony could be fragile and thus bring the national well-being into question.When this happens, the monarchical principle has precedence and the ruler is obliged to act in order to protect the national interest, which has the highest value in the hierarchy.This was the basis for the justification of the dictatorship of King Aleksandar in the textbooks.The unification was presented as a process which was relatively long lasting, thus emphasizing even more that the unification was a result of a consensus and joint work of the peoples from all parts of the future state. 38The process of liberation and unification was embedded in the history of World War I, emphasizing the importance of the internal factors of unity. 39The stress on the importance of the period that started with World War I can be seen in the fact that the short reviews of events at the end of the textbooks were dominated by the content connected with this period. 40n a new generation of textbooks the history of Yugoslavia was presented in more detail.The liberation and unification, as well as the history of the Yugoslav state were almost completely identified with the rule of King Aleksandar I Karađorđević. 41It was particularly emphasized that the new state was based on the (liberal) principles of general equality of all its citizens and, among other things, the freedom of religion.While these principles were never called into question, the parliamentary period in the history of the Yugoslav state was shown briefly and in a negative light as a time of discussions, arguments and disagreements among MPs.It was seen as a big threat to people, which explained the necessity of the king's abolition of the constitution and the introduction of a dictatorship, as well as him taking over the legislative power.The period from January 1929 until his assassination in Marseilles in 1934 was presented affirmatively as the time in which the national unity was finally confirmed both in the name of the people and the state and its organization and administrative division, and finally in the constitution that was given by the king in 1931. 42The foreign policy of the Yugoslav state was completely identified with the actions of King Aleksandar.It was universalized because it was presented as an action for the welfare of his people and all the nations of the world.Such messages should be understood in the context of discussions on the new concept of history textbooks which were designed under the guidelines of the League of Nations.On that basis, recommendations were adopted that textbooks should be based to a greater extent 38 Ilić 1935: 100-101;Đorđević, Stranjaković 1939: 103-104;Matović 1938: 146-152;Stojaković 1939: 99-100. 39 Ilić 1935: 91-97. 40 Kostić, Ljujić 1939: 97-99.In the Brief Overview in this textbook, out of 41 chronological entries as many as 21 (50.2%) were about the events in the perios 1914-1929. 41 Kostić, Ljujić 1939: 95. 42